The Transatlantic Slave Trade

The Atlantic Slave Trade was the most notable consequence of European explorations along the coast of Africa in the 1400s. During the age of European maritime and commercial expansion, large areas of Africa were brought into the orbit of the burgeoning world economy and were influenced by the transformation taking place. The slave trade, as devastating as it was for the African population, changed the course of history and had an indirect effect on societies as far as China. Thus, this integration of the African continent in the global network of change had a profound impact on the whole world.

At first, the scope of the slave trade was insignificant on the global scale. When the Portugese estabilished their first factories along the west African coast, what they did was provide local African rulers with slaves brought from other streches of the coast. In return, the Portugese received ivory, pepper, animal skins, and gold. But the Portugese quickly realized that they could successfully exploit the institution of slavery, especially because the Iberian peninsula had been maintaining a consistent amount of slaves ever since the Muslims estabilished their presence there in the 700s. The first slaves brought directly to Portugal from Africa arrived in 1441, after which slaves became a common trade item. An additional impetus was provided when the Portugese and the Spanish began to develop sugar plantations on the Atlantic islands of Madeira and the Canaries. But what most severely increased the scope of the slave trade and added the adjective 'transatlantic' was the development of the American plantation colonies, especially Brazil, on the other side of the world. The voyages of Columbus and the successive defeat of the Aztecs and Inca populations by Cortez and Pizarro, respectively, enabled the Iberians to monopolize Latin America and assert themselves as the prime authority there. Because the remaining indigenous population had no immunity to the diseases which the Europeans brought along with them, they died out quickly, thus leaving the conquerors with no other alternative but to turn to Africa and extract their labor force from this vibrant continent.

An eyewitness to the unloading of slaves in Portugal in 1444 wrote,

“But what heart could be so hard as not to be pierced with piteous feelings to see that company? For some kept their heads low and their faces bathed in tears, looking one upon another; others stood groaning very dolorously, looking up to the height of heaven, fixing their eyes upon it, crying out loudly, as if asking help of the Father of Nature.“

It is difficult to imagine the Africans' plight during the era of the slave trade. Even though the transatlantic slave trade was centered around men, because they were considered to be physically more apt to work the plantations, this does nothing to alleviate the effect the trade had on African society. Families were torn apart. Once a man had been enslaved, there was almost no hope that he would see his family again. What's more, the mortality rate on the ships was from 10 to 20 percent, which meant that one fourth of the slaves never even made it to the New World. The ones who managed to survive the Middle Passage, as the trip from Africa to the Americas was called, were shamelessly exploited and often died within the first couple of months from their arrival.

In the Americas, African slaves had to adapt and to incorporate other Africans' ideas and customs into their own lives. The ways and customs of the masters were also imposed. Thus, what emerged as an unique Afro-American culture reflected specific African roots adapted to a new reality. Religion, for example, reflected continuity and adaptation. African religous ideas and practices did not die out. In the English islands, these practices were collectively termed obeah, and the men and women knowledgeable in them were held in high esteem within the community. In Brazil and Haiti, fully developed versions of African religions flourished and continue today, despite attempts to suppress them.

The end of the Atlantic slave trade and the abolition of slavery in the Atlantic world resulted from economic, political, and religious reasons. These reasons, which were manifestations of the Enlightment, the age of revolution, and Christian revivalism, were external to Africa, but once again they determined the pace and nature of change within this continent. Nonetheless, the transatlantic slave trade remains to be one of the most significant historical occurences which marked a whole era.

Honoring Martin Luther King

People have always struggled for their rights and rightful position in their respective societies. They have also struggled with the obstacles that were imposed on them. Perhaps the most notable example of this omnipresent struggle are the black people, who once used to dedicate their lives to fighting for their rights.

This struggle was most potent in the time of Martin Luther King, Jr. Every January, America celebrates a national holiday declared in honor of the so-called "Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr." King has had the honor accorded to no other American; not Washington, not Jefferson, not Lincoln. Here comes the story of one great man who fought for the rights of his people; one of the greatest American Civil Rights leaders of the 1960s.

Born in 1929, King was the son of a Black preacher, who was known at the time as "Daddy King". In 1935, "Daddy King" had an inspiration to name himself after the Protestant reformer Martin Luther. He declared to his congregation that they were to begin referring to him as "Martin Luther King", and to his son as "Martin Luther King, Jr."

King was always a strong civil rights activist. In December of 1955, he was ready to accept the leadership of the first great, nonviolent demonstration of the African-American population in the United States. On December 21, 1956, after the Supreme Court of the United States had declared unconstitutionally the laws requiring segregation on buses, King urged the Negroes not to abide by them. During these days of boycott, King was arrested, his home was bombed, and he was a subject to personal abuse. At the same time, however, he emerged as a leader of the first rank.

King was later elected president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an organization formed to provide new leadership for the now burgeoning civil rights movement. The ideals for this organization he took from Christianity, and its operational techniques he took from Gandhi. King traveled over seven million miles and spoke over twenty hundred times, appearing wherever there was injustice and protest, and wherever action was required. Meanwhile, he wrote five books and published numerous articles. Most importantly, he caught the attention of the entire world, providing what he called a coalition of conscience. He planned drives in Alabama for the registration of Negroes as voters and directed the peaceful march on Washington, DC. After speaking to over 200,000 people, to whom he delivered his address "l Have a Dream", he conferred with President John F. Kennedy.

In 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was giving a speech called "I’ve Been To The Mountain Top" in Memphis, Tennessee, when he was shot by an escaped convict named James Earl Ray. He died fighting for the rights of his people.

Martin Luther King, Jr. was a remarkable person, a person who inevitably makes one think of the concept of race and the notion of racial discrimination. I thus strongly believe that we should all be aware of the situation in which the Afro-Americans were in. Why does everyone revere King as a national hero? Because he truly, passionately fought for his race and his people. He was arrested many times for spreading his ideas, yet he never gave up. He embodies the strength and persistence that is needed to fulfill a dream, and King certainly fulfilled his.

Changing Education

Howard University, located in Washington, D.C., is truly a unique school. Nationally ranked, the university offers an expansive curriculum in which biology, journalism, and political science are top majors. However, Howard is unique in another significant aspect – it serves as the nation’s predominantly African American university, providing the opportunity for higher education for socially and economically disadvantaged students. Howard is a positive example of how black Americans have contributed to the advancement of minorities in American society, reflecting the the struggle to create a more equal education system.

Howard University was founded in 1867, two years after the end of the Civil War. As the university was created to provide educational opportunities for freed slaves, the school has continued its mission to provide higher education while focusing on promising African American students. Moreover, Howard has played a significant role in the integration of schools and end of racial segregation. During the 1930s-50s, students of the Howard University School of Law worked with the NAACP to end racial segregation, leading to the implementation of Brown v. Board, which overturned the ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson.

In 1896, the Supreme Court approved “separate but equal” as a constitutional interpretation of the 14th Amendment. The 14th Amendment prevented states from denying rights and privileges to U.S. citizens, which included African Americans who had been granted citizenship under the Civil Rights Act of 1866. However, during the “separate but equal” ruling in the case Plessy v. Ferguson, the Court upheld racial segregation for African Americans as a principle to be applied in public institutions, including schools, thus, virtually rejecting the 14th Amendment. It was not until 1954 that the “separate but equal” policy was repudiated by the Supreme Court in the case Brown v. Board of Education.

While the two cases played significant roles in the integration of schools and racial segregation, Howard lawyers and leaders played a crucial role in overturning the legal practice. In the case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation was unconstitutional, finally initiating the gradual integration of schools in the United States.

Although integration of schools was met with great resistance, especially in the South, Howard University serves as a positive example of African Americans pursuing education and breaking the educational color barrier. For example, while Howard continues to be a predominantly black school, other African American universities have seen a recent shift in demographics – Morehouse College, located in Atlanta, Georgia, has just had its first white valedictorian in the school’s 141-year history. Howard University serves as a landmark example of traditionally black colleges striving for the advancement of African American students while breaking the educational color barrier in America.

As Howard law students contributed to the deciding Brown case, Howard continues to encourage students to “fight for the full rights of citizenship and equality which began with Brown,” continuing its legacy of contribution and advancement for African Americans. According to Howard’s mission statement, the university offers an environment in which “students come to study, free of oppression of any type, stripe or kind,” and is perhaps a school you may consider applying to.

February - A Black Month

February is the shortest month of the year, and its name literally means purification. It is remembered as Black History Month, and is celebrated in the USA and Canada as a remembrance of important people and events in the history of the African-American diaspora. By studying the history of the African-Americans, we can find many prominent individuals who have left their mark on history as authors of great works. One of the most famous ones are Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano, both of whom lived in the 18th century. They wrote during the early high points of the slave narratives and the famous Harlem renaissance, which later continues with writers such as Toni Morrison, Maya Angelou, and Walter Mosley. These people are, in fact, those that show us best why we celebrate Black History Month today. They do this through their works, which increase our understanding of the pain and suffering the Africans-Americans have been through.

Toni Morrison, for instance, has written one of the most resonant slave narratives. “Beloved” reinforces her major theme, the generational repercussions of slavery, as do most of her other works. “The Bluest Eye” follows the life of a young girl troubled by her complexion, with a strong wish to become a blue-eyed Caucasian. The works of Toni Morrison thus familiarize us with the life of the African-Americans and their struggle to rise within society.

“I Know Why The Cage Bird Sings”, an autobiography by American writer and poet Maya Angelou, is a Bildungsroman (a coming-of-age novel), which illustrates how the strength of character and love of literature can help one overcome racism and trauma. Maya Angelou has thus become a recognized author by writing about the racism and prejudice of which all African-Americans were victims.

Black History month is a month to be celebrated, and a month to be praised. It is a significant remembrance of the legacy of the African-American population and their incessant struggles. By reading the works of black writers, we can only hope to increase our understanding of these struggles, but also realize that we will never be able to fully grasp the implications of their experiences.